This summary presents key cosmological models of the universe, ranging from eternal, cyclical, static, and steady-state concepts
to the Big Bang and inflationary scenarios. Each model is described briefly, with relevant proposers highlighted.
The discussion concludes with the perspective of Extended Classical Mechanics (ECM), offering an alternative view of
the universe based on frequency-governed mass-energy dynamics and entropic transformations.
Cosmological Models
1. Eternal Universe
Description: Universe exists infinitely, without a definitive beginning or end.
Proposers: Sir Roger Penrose (Conformal Cyclic Cosmology), Anaximander, Leucippus, Democritus
2. Cyclical (Oscillating) Universe
Description: Infinite cycles of expansion and contraction; Big Bang emerges from previous universe collapse.
Proposers: Alexander Friedmann, Albert Einstein, Richard Tolman, Paul Steinhardt & Neil Turok, Sir Roger Penrose, Rudolf Falb & Ludwig Zehnder
3. Static Universe
Description: Universe is constant in size; neither expanding nor contracting, balanced by a cosmological constant.
Proposer: Albert Einstein
4. Big Bang Universe
Description: Universe began ~13.8 billion years ago from a hot, dense singularity and has been expanding ever since.
Proposers: Georges Lemaître, Alexander Friedmann, Edwin Hubble, George Gamow, Ralph Alpher & Robert Herman
5. Steady State Universe
Description: Universe eternally expands while maintaining constant average density through matter creation.
Proposers: Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, William Duncan MacMillan, Albert Einstein, Hoyle, Geoffrey Burbidge & Jayant Narlikar
6. Eternal Inflation
Description: Inflation ceases in our region but continues elsewhere, forming multiple bubble universes (multiverse).
Proposers: Alan Guth, Andrei Linde
7. Extended Classical Mechanics (ECM) Universe
Description: ECM frames the universe as a frequency-governed mass-energy system. Mass redistribution, kinetic energy, and gravitation emerge from entropic and frequency-driven processes. Unlike Big Bang or singularity models, ECM emphasizes a continuous transformation of mass-energy, avoiding the need to invoke a singular beginning.
While classical and modern cosmological models explore beginnings, cycles, and expansion mechanisms, the ECM perspective frames the universe as successive aeons of physical manifestation governed by frequency-driven mass-energy emergence and entropic transformation. Rather than invoking singular origins or purely mechanical cycles, ECM describes each physical universe as arising from a prior unmanifested existence, providing a coherent framework for the emergence of gravitation, kinetic phenomena, and cosmic mass distribution as intrinsic properties of the universe’s dynamic phase structure.
ECM describes the universe as repeatedly coming into physical existence — not eternally existing in physical form.
Thakur, S. From Uneventful Energy to Manifested Universes: An ECM Bridge Between Sen's Conjecture and Penrose's Conformal Cyclic Cosmology.
https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.30930.00966
